"When the colonizer came into Bougainville - the problem was created in his own land – he came to Bougainville and his problems became the problems of Bougainville man. We are still in the colonial era. We are not free yet.” Bougainvillean Chief (Ophir 2020)
Personal Note
My connection to Bougainville is deeply personal. My parents lived and worked in the region in the 80s, prior to the crisis. After my birth, we retuned and called Bougainville home until 2005. The stories and experiences of Bougainville have been a constant thread in my life. I had the privilege of spending a part of my childhood on Sohano Island, between Buka and Bougainville Island, and my affection for the region is deep. This essay originated as a part of my MSc studies, where I chose to focus on a region that has significantly shaped my worldview. However, I realized the importance of making this topic accessible beyond academia. Therefore, I've adapted my original essay into this blog post. It's my hope that this less formal, more digestible version of the piece will help a wider audience appreciate the complexities and nuances of Bougainville's past and present, just as I have been privileged to do throughout my life.
1. Introduction
This post will explore the history of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville (AROB) in Papua New Guinea (PNG), focusing on how colonialism has shaped its history and the identity of its people. The lens of colonialism helps us understand the struggles Bougainvilleans have faced, particularly the anti-colonial uprising and civil war, and how their fight for independence challenges Modernity and its tenets of inequality, control, and superiority.
2. Plantation Colonialism: Labour Exploitation and Land Extraction
The history of Bougainville is marked by the various forms of colonization it has experienced. In 1768, French admiral Louis de Bougainville gave his name to the region, which was previously known as Ophir Island. Throughout the 19th century, Bougainvilleans were victims of 'blackbirding', a practice of kidnapping Pacific Islanders for work on overseas plantations. As Bougainville came under German control in 1884, large numbers of people from the region were coerced into labour in various parts of the new colony.
3. Mining: Modern Industrialized Neo-Colonialism
In the 20th century, Bougainville experienced a new form of neo-colonialism with the rise of mining. The region's rich deposits of copper and gold became the target of the Australian regime. The mining operations, conducted by Bougainville Copper Limited (BCL), a subsidiary of the Australian mining firm Conzinc Rio Tinto (CRT), resulted in significant environmental degradation and societal changes, fuelling resentment among Bougainvilleans.
« Daughter Bougainville they diagnosed, Copper and gold she full. Skillful as gynecologist, Operating pregnant woman, They extracted her baby: The birth of world class mine. » Bougainvillean song (Ophir 2020)
4. Bougainville Crisis: The Pinnacle of Plantation Colonialism and Neo-Colonial Copper Mining
The Bougainville Crisis was a turning point in the history of the region. It began as a sabotage activism against the mine, which escalated into a secessionist conflict between the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) and PNG, supported by Australia and BCL. The conflict was a clear form of resistance against a violent infrastructure project, and it resulted in the eventual shutdown of the Panguna mine.
5. Reclaiming Bougainville: The Move towards Independence
Following the Crisis, Bougainville made strides towards independence. As part of a peace agreement with the PNG government, a non-binding independence referendum was held in 2019, with a resounding 98% of voters supporting independence. Despite this victory, Bougainvilleans continue to struggle against coloniality and for indigenous sovereignty, highlighting the ongoing challenges posed by Modernity.
6. Binary choice? Independence and Reopening of Panguna Mine
Former ABG President John Momis holds on to the narrative of modern development, arguing that “Bougainville needs to catch up with the world” and become financially self-sufficient to ensure true independence. In this context, independence has become inseparably linked to the issue of resources, with the Panguna Mine becoming a symbol for this connection.
On the other hand, opposition voices fear a return to historical oppression. They argue that independence must be achieved without resource extraction, as it may lead to a new form of dependence on global capital. Hill and colleagues (2020) argue that the discourse on reopening the mine and attaining independence has been inappropriately conflated.
They contend that while mining and independence struggles in Bougainville are historically interrelated, they are not best addressed as binary choices. A binary stance equates a reopened Panguna mine (and possibly other mining operations in the region) with ensured economic self-sufficiency, thereby overriding local concerns and impacts.
A shift away from this binary stance might be the first step towards a resolution. The emphasis on the economic and technical value of the Panguna mine to AROB’s independence must be shifted towards its socio-political significance. Questioning the conflated discourse around financing independence opens up more complex considerations: fiscal self-sufficiency depends on the type of state being supported, the goals, and the cultural and governance framework on which it is based.
Redirecting the public discourse away from financial feasibility through binary choice toward a multiplicity of possible paths to independence opens up pathways that might otherwise be overlooked.
7. Conclusion: Mining, Colonialism, and the Path to Independence
The Bougainville Crisis revealed the intimate connections between mining, the colonial drive for expansion, and resource extraction. These systems are entrenched in the historical and ongoing realities of colonialism, coloniality, capitalism, and Modernity. This manifests in attacks on local culture, ideas, and lifestyles.
Both the vote for independence and the rejection of the proposed reopening of the Panguna mine are resistance against further impositions of Modernisation. The intertwined discourse on independence, self-sufficiency, and mining reinforces and sustains Modernity, while sidelining alternative routes to development.
It's imperative that we consider alternate pathways for development. Whether they include mining or not, they must be grounded in informed choices about development goals and paths. The people of AROB must be empowered to lead this discourse and scrutinize the ties between the persistence of coloniality and the violence of global capitalism. These conversations will need to draw from a variety of sources in non-linear and non academic-institutional ways, where oral histories are given due importance.
The journey to independence is proving to be a journey of challenging Modernity. Through their vote, the people of Bougainville are bravely disassembling systems of extractivism that have caused violence, and they are demanding an independent Bougainville that returns to values of conviviality and care.
Recommended: Ophir
Academic Paper and References
This essay examines the history of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville (AROB) in Papua New Guinea (PNG) through the lens of colonialism and Coloniality. It explores how colonial processes have shaped Bougainvillean ways of being and understanding and how these processes have culminated in the 10-year Bougainville Crisis starting in 1988. The essay concludes that Bougainvilleans’ vote for independence challenges Modernity and demands alternative pathways that can allow for equal encounters between worlds, upholding a future where the pillars of colonialism, Coloniality, inequality, control, and superiority are replaced by conviviality and care. The original paper provides a detailed history of Bougainville, from plantation colonialism to neo-colonial copper mining, and discusses the events leading up to the Bougainville Crisis and its aftermath. It also examines the ongoing struggle for independence and the challenges that lie ahead.